Class Four: Goals, Issues, and Conclusions

Argument: Goals, Issues, and Conclusions
Class Four: September 6, 2012

Introduction to Goals

Every argument is an undertaking (means) to accomplish a goal (end).  

There are three broad categories of goals:

• First Person - Goals to affect yourself.  
• Second Person - Goals to affect your opponent.  
• Third Person - Goals to affect listeners of the argument.

Any argument that results in you meeting your goal, is an argument you have won.  You will almost always lose an argument if you do not know, or forget, your goal.  Therefore keep your goal in mind when arguing.  This will help you stay on track, shape your argument, and determine whether your goal has been, or can be, reached. 

Since setting a goal in an argument determines nearly every aspect of the argument that follows, it is crucial to understand the proper goals of an argument and keep them constantly in mind.  In certain cases your goal may be readily and apparently achievable - you will know then that you have accomplished what you sought to achieve.  In many cases, a long time may pass before you find out, if at all, that your argument succeeded.  In some cases, certain goals are simply not achievable - ever. 

“Winning” an argument does not necessarily mean that you have compelled, through logic and eloquence, the opposition to concede.   It is an unalterable fact of human existence, that you cannot make an argument that will achieve every possible goal you may select.  In the face of this reality, the first step to any argument, and the most important, is to recognize and select a proper goal or goals that you may actually achieve.

Knowing your goal is so important that the moment you realize your goal cannot be achieved - it is time to stop arguing.

Types of Goals

First Person Goals

First Person Goals are the easiest to acheive.  You may engage in an argument for entertainment, practice, and education.  

The Pleasure of Intellectual Debate.  There is a rare person who actually enjoys the argument and the debate.  It is a form of sport, a logical challenge, and a pleasure that has been enjoyed since antiquity.  Argument can be like virtual chess, honing your ability to listen, dissect, and respond. Older than chess, argument requires you examine your own beliefs, and anticipate your opponent’s next move.

You can also engage in argument to feed your ego, reveling in your assumed mastery of logic.   

Second Person Goals

The person you are arguing against is the “second person.”  Here, you are looking to affect your opponent.  These goals include: persuade, inform, and oppose.  Changing the opposition’s mind to adopt your position on the argument is a common assumed goal.  This is, I suspect, what most people think that their goal should be when entering an argument.  Unfortunately it is the goal that you are least likely to achieve.

Change Behavior.  The distinction between change someone’s mind, and changing his or her behavior is not difficult.  Change someone’s mind, their behavior follows as a result.  Sometimes, however, it is not possible, or time-effective to alter someone’s beliefs, and instead persuade him or her to follow your instructions even if he or she does not believe or adopt the reason why.  Most parents eventually reach this goal when they say, “Because I said so.”

Speaking up to confront an improper action or statement or to defend a person or ideal that has been attacked.  You may be presented with an action, or statement, that requires you to speak up and confront the statement so that (1) your silence is not taken as agreement; or (2) you have a moral duty to confront a statement or action you perceive as wrong.   You perceive that someone, or something, is getting attacked, and you wish to defend that person, or idea.  

Explain your Position or Rationale.  When accused of something, or asked why you took an action, or adopted a position, you may seek merely to state your position so that it is understood - even if you do not hope to persuade.

Third Person Goals

Altering the position of a spectator of the argument.  In this case, you seek to convince the audience, not your opponent, to adopt your position.  Political Debates, are classic examples of this type of goal.  You will never get your political opponent to publicly agree you are the best candidate, however you have a chance with those who witness the debate.  These goals include to inform, persuade, and entertain the listeners.

Selecting your Goal

Select Achievable Goals

Since argument is only a means to an end, you should only engage in arguments if you have an acceptable chance of achieving your goal.  Identifying your goal is therefore the most important decision you can make before you even start the argument.  If your goal is never to lose an argument then you accomplish your goal by avoiding the argument in the first place.  If your goal is to win every argument then you need to pick your battles very wisely.  Often it takes more thought, acumen and wisdom in deciding when to argue and what to let pass.  When arguing with someone, question whether obtaining that person’s agreement should be your goal.

Select Proper Goals

Not all goals, even if achievable, are proper to obtain.  Arguments designed to bring humiliation, or for self-aggrandizement, may not be in your best interest.  

• Before arguing figure out whether you really have a dog in the fight – if not don’t get involved.  
• Portraying yourself as an intelligent individual with “the Answer.”  Rare is the individual, who does not desire to be the individual with most intelligence.  You can solve all problems, explain all mysteries, and hopefully, others will appreciate your brilliance.  This sort of vanity bodes poorly for you.
• Belittle, Mock, Demean, Intimidate.  Some view argument as a means to attack, and assert petty dominance.  If that is your goal, then put this book down.  It isn’t for you.  I would recommend any number of sarcastic books teaching you the art of the put-down.  This book will not help you.

Introduction to Issues

Put simply, the issue is the precise question that will be answered by the end point conclusion.  

Determining the issue is the next important step toward mastering the Gentle Art of Arguments.  If you begin an argument without knowing the issue, you will founder and lose every single time.  The issue will determine not only end-point-conclusion, but also which facts are relevant and, to a large degree, which rule will be used to evaluate the facts.

For example, if the issue is to determine the area of a circle - that immediately requires we use the rule that the area of a circle is πr² - that is the area of the circle is determined by multiplying Pi by the length of the radius and then squaring the result.  Knowing the rule, we can thus determine the relevant facts needed and necessary to resolve the issue.  These are (1) the value of π; and (2) the length of the radius.  Any other fact that does not reveal either the value of π or the value of the radius is irrelevant.  

That’s how important determining what the issue is before you begin an argument.  It determines not only the rule, but also the facts that may properly be marshaled to support your position.  

Determining the Issue

Given how important the issue is to an argument, how do you determine the issue.  This takes a great deal experience, and will depend upon a number of factors:

• Your goal may determine the issue.  If your goal is not convince your opponent, but rather a third person, you may select an issue that is important to the third person.  You may also seek to stick an issue you know that you have stronger command of facts and rules.
• The setting or context of an argument will likely determine the issue.  Arguments in the political process will have different issues than arguments in Supreme Court.  
• Getting Agreement on the Issue
• Goals are always easier to reach if all the parties to an argument agree on the issue to be resolved.  Unhappily, that is often not the case.  When possible, always try to obtain agreement as to the issue.  This ensures that the argument does not stray into irrelevant territory.  If you cannot obtain an agreement on the issue, and this is an argument you still wish to enter, then understand both your and your opponent’s issues.  
• Failure to Agree on the Issue
• If you feel like you are arguing past each other, or your opponent starts switching to another issue - quickly address the split.  Otherwise your chances of reaching your goal are greatly diminished.  
• Irreconcilable Issues.  When you perceive that you are arguing two different issues, and you have been unable to get agreement on the issue, then you have two options:  (1) Be prepared to argue why your selected issue is superior to the other perceived issue; and (2) Be prepared to proceed along two separate argument tracks simultaneously; or (3) Obtain agreement to finish one issue first and then proceed to the other issue.
• Switching Issues.  In lay terms this is called “changing the topic.”  Immediately call your opponent on the attempt to switch the topic.  If it is a relevant, but tangential issue, then seek to obtain agreement to finish one issue before starting a new issue.  It is perfectly acceptable for you point to the effort to switch the issue as a concession that you have a superior argument.

Introduction to Conclusions

There are two types of conclusions in The Gentle Art of Argument: (1) End-Point-Conclusion and (2) Supporting Conclusions.  

End-Point-Conclusions.  These conclusions are the final dispositive answer or allegation that resolves the declared issue.  End-Point-Conclusions are the “point” to all the argument and effort.  End-Point-Conclusions are supported by (1) Determined Facts; (2) Adopted Rules; and (3) Supporting Conclusions.

Supporting Conclusions.  While these conclusions are also supported by (1) Determined Facts and (2) Adopted Rules - these conclusions are not the “point” of the argument.  However often in arguments, and always in complex arguments, supporting conclusions are necessary to reach the End-Point-Conclusion.

Identifying Conclusions

Conclusions are statements that prompt the questions such as why?; how?; so what?; or how do we know that?  Once you distinguish Conclusions from Facts and Rules, you may be surprised how often arguments rely upon unsupported conclusions.  

Types of Conclusions

There are several types of Conclusions.  Here are nine of them:

1. Cause & Effect Conclusions.  Cause & Effect Conclusions run the gamut from (a) Causal -  If A then B; to (b) Effect - If B came about then A was present; to (c) Prediction- If An occurs then B will happen.
2. Prediction Conclusions.  Prediction Conclusions are another form of cause & effect - if this occurs thens
3. Comparison Conclusions - A is (is not) the same as / equal to / analogous to B.
4. Preference Conclusions - A tastes better than B.
5. Nature Conclusions - He did that because he is mean.
6. Aspirational Conclusions - We should treat people better.
7. Factual Conclusions - The room is thirty square feet.
8. Rule Conclusions - You cannot spend more than you make.
9. Abstract Conclusions - are statements that convey a metric, but in fact do not.  For example, it is small.  Small compared to what?